Fatigue (material) Guide, Meaning , Facts, Information and Description
In materials science, fatigue is a process by which a component is weakened by repeated bending or other cyclic stress, often to the point of fracture. The stress can be small enough to be below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material. However, over a large number of cycles the effect can be catastrophic.
The following characteristics are common to fatigue in all materials:
figure to be done
S-N curves are derived from tests on samples of the material to be characterised (often called coupons) where a regular sinusoidal stress is applied by a testing machine which also counts the number of cycles to failure. This process is sometimes known as coupon testing. Each coupon test generates a point on the plot though in some cases there is a runout where the time to failure exceeds that available for the test (see censoring). Analysis of fatigue data requires techniques from statistics, especially survival analysis and linear regression.
In practice, a mechanical part is exposed to a complex, often random, sequence of loads, large and small. In order to assess the safe life of such a part:
Though Miner's rule is a useful approximation in many circumstances, it has two major limitations:
Characteristics of fatigue failures
Timeline of fatigue history
High-cycle fatigue
Historically, most attention has focused on situations that require more than 104 cycles to failure where stress is low and deformation primarily elastic.
The S-N curve
In high-cycle fatigue situations, materials performance is commonly characterised by an S-N curve, also known as a Wöhler curve. This is a graph of the magnitude of a cyclical stress (S) against the cycles to failure (N).Probabilistic nature of fatigue
As coupons sampled from a homogeneous frame will manifest variation in their number of cycles to failure, the S-N curve should more properly be an S-N-P curve capturing the probability of failure after a given number of cycles of a certain stress. Probability distributions that are common in data analysis and in design against fatigue include the lognormal distribution, extreme value distribution and Weibull distribution.Complex loadings
Miner's rule
In 1945, M. A. Miner popularised a rule that had first been proposed by A. Palmgren in 1924. The rule, variously called Miner's rule or the Palmgren-Miner linear damage hypothesis, states that where there are k different stress magnitudes in a spectrum, Si (1 ≤ i ≤ k), each contributing ni(Si) cycles, then if Ni(Si) is the number of cycles to failure of a constant stress reversal Si, failure occurs when:
This can be thought of as assessing what percentage of life is consumed by stress reversal at each magnitude then forming a linear combination of their aggregate.Low-cycle fatigue
Where the stress is high enough for plastic deformation to occur, the account in terms of stress is less useful and the strain in the material offers a simpler description. Low-cycle fatigue is usually characterised by the Coffin-Manson relation (popularised by L. F. Coffin in 1979 based on S. S. Manson's 1960 work):
- Δεp /2 is the plastic strain amplitude;
- εf' is an empirical constant known as the fatigue ductility coefficient, the failure strain for a single reversal;
- 2N is the number of reversals to failure (N cycles);
- c is an empirical constant known as the fatigue ductility exponent, commonly ranging from -0.5 to -0.7 for metals.
Fatigue and fracture mechanics
The account above is purely phenomenological and, though it allows life prediction and design assurance, it does not enable life improvement or design optimisation. For the latter purposes, an exposition of the causes and processes of fatigue is necessary. Such an explanation is given by fracture mechanics in four stages.
- Crack initiation;
- Stage I crack-growth;
- Stage II crack-growth; and
- Ultimate ductile failure.
Factors that affect fatigue-life
to be done
Design against fatigue
Dependable design against fatigue-failure requires thorough education and supervised experience in mechanical engineering or materials science.
There are three principle approaches to life assurance for mechanical parts that display increasing degrees of sophistication:
- Design to keep stress below threshold of fatigue limit (infinite lifetime concept);
- Design (conservatively) for a fixed life after which the user is instructed to replace the part with a new one (a so-called lifed part, finite lifetime concept);
- Instruct the user to inspect the part periodically for cracks and to replace the part once a crack exceeds a critical length. This approach usually uses the technologies of nondestructive testing and requires an accurate prediction of the rate of crack-growth between inspections.
Famous fatigue failures
Versailles accident
On May 8, 1842 one of the trains carrying revellers on their return from Versailles to Paris, having witnessed the celebrations of the birthday of Louis Philippe, derailed and caught fire. Though the resulting conflagration mutilated the dead beyond recognition or enumeration, it is estimated that 53 perished and around 40 were seriously injured.
The derailment had been the result of a broken locomotive axle and Rankine's investigation highlighted the importance of stress concentration for the first time.
De Havilland Comet
Metal fatigue came strongly to the notice of aircraft engineers in 1954 after three de Havilland Comet passenger jets had broken up in mid-air and crashed within a single year. Investigators from the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough in England told a public enquiry that the sharp corners around the plane's window openings acted as initiation sites for cracks. All aircraft windows were immediately redesigned with rounded corners.
This is an Article on Fatigue (material). Page Contains Information, Facts Details or Explanation Guide About Fatigue (material) Others
See also
Bibliography